ࡱ>  yg bjbjVV r<r<@>&(<)))4***h*t-*N.3p 4:F4F4z5F=L@H&$Q)Bz5z5BB))F4F44YLLLBt)F4)F4LBLL~~(nF4P.[s'E Lo0|a3Fatna) ALA6LB,BBqAAAI.AAABBBBaAAAAAAAAA| %:  Attorney-Generals Department Australian Federal Police, and Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions Joint submission to the 鱨վ inquiry into the treatment of individuals suspected of people smuggling offences who say that they are children February2012 Contents  TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393860" 1. Executive Summary  PAGEREF _Toc316393860 \h 3  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393861" 2. Legislative and policy framework  PAGEREF _Toc316393861 \h 3  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393862" 2.1. Policy context for establishing age  PAGEREF _Toc316393862 \h 3  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393863" 2.2. Legislative framework for age determination in the criminal justice context  PAGEREF _Toc316393863 \h 4  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393864" 2.3. People smuggling offences  PAGEREF _Toc316393864 \h 5  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393865" 2.4. Prosecution of minors for people smuggling offences  PAGEREF _Toc316393865 \h 6  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393867" 3. Age determination processes and evidence  PAGEREF _Toc316393867 \h 7  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393868" 3.1. DIAC age assessments  PAGEREF _Toc316393868 \h 11  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393869" 3.2. X-rays  PAGEREF _Toc316393869 \h 11  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393870" 3.2.1. Wrist X-rays  PAGEREF _Toc316393870 \h 11  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393871" 3.2.2. Dental X-rays  PAGEREF _Toc316393871 \h 12  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393872" 3.2.3. Ethical issues with the use of radiography  PAGEREF _Toc316393872 \h 13  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393873" 3.3. Interviews  PAGEREF _Toc316393873 \h 14  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393874" 3.4. Age inquiries in the crews country of origin  PAGEREF _Toc316393874 \h 15  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393875" 3.4.1. Documentation  PAGEREF _Toc316393875 \h 15  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393876" 3.4.2. Statements from relatives  PAGEREF _Toc316393876 \h 16  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393877" 3.5. Other material  PAGEREF _Toc316393877 \h 16  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393878" 3.6. International practice  PAGEREF _Toc316393878 \h 16  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393879" 3.6.1. United Kingdom  PAGEREF _Toc316393879 \h 16  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393880" 3.6.2. United States of America  PAGEREF _Toc316393880 \h 19  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393881" 3.6.3. Comparison of the Australian system with the UK and US systems  PAGEREF _Toc316393881 \h 21  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393882" 4. Criminal processes for crew claiming to be minors  PAGEREF _Toc316393882 \h 22  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393883" 4.1. Interception and investigation arrangements  PAGEREF _Toc316393883 \h 22  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393884" 4.2. Immigration detention arrangements and facilities  PAGEREF _Toc316393884 \h 23  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393885" 4.3. Arrest and charge  PAGEREF _Toc316393885 \h 24  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393886" 4.4. Arrangements for bail and remand  PAGEREF _Toc316393886 \h 24  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393887" 4.5. Court processes  PAGEREF _Toc316393887 \h 25  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393888" 4.6. Custodial arrangements for sentenced prisoners  PAGEREF _Toc316393888 \h 26  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393889" 5. Legal aid arrangements  PAGEREF _Toc316393889 \h 26  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393890" 6. International obligations  PAGEREF _Toc316393890 \h 27  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393891" 6.1. Detention of crew claiming to be minors  PAGEREF _Toc316393891 \h 27  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393892" 6.2. Guardianship  PAGEREF _Toc316393892 \h 28  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393893" 6.3. Consular notification and representation  PAGEREF _Toc316393893 \h 28  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393894" 7. Conclusion  PAGEREF _Toc316393894 \h 29  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc316393895" AttachmentA: age determination procedures in selected countries  PAGEREF _Toc316393895 \h 30  Executive Summary The MigrationAct1958 contains a range of serious people smuggling offences, with mandatory minimum penalties, which apply to the crew of people smuggling ventures coming to Australia. However, minors are only prosecuted with people smuggling offences in exceptional circumstances on the basis of their significant involvement in a people smuggling venture or their involvement in multiple ventures. A significant number of alleged people smuggling crew offenders claim to be minors. Most of the alleged offenders are from developing countries in which births are not routinely registered. Commonwealth agencies often have great difficulty in obtaining evidence which clearly establishes the age of alleged people smuggling crew claiming to be minors. Consequently, the determination of the age of an alleged people smuggling offender claiming to be a minor is a critical aspect of the criminal justice process. Age determination is an inexact science involving some margin of error, irrespective of the method used. The Australian Federal Police (AFP) and the Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions (CDPP) have robust systems in place for gathering and evaluating evidence where people smuggling crew claim to be minors. This involves using a combination of different age determination procedures in order to overcome the potential for inaccuracies. Age is ultimately a matter for the courts to determine and these systems are designed to ensure the courts have all available information when determining age, while also reflecting the courts evolving assessment of evidential material relating to age. Implementation of the current age determination framework has taken time, but has been effective in reducing the number of people smuggling crew before the courts actively claiming to be minors. The Australian Government also recognises its international human rights obligations in respect to the rights of the child. Governmental decisions and policy considerations are made with the best interest of the child as a primary consideration. The Attorney-Generals Department (AGD) has prepared this joint submission for the 鱨վs (the Commission) inquiry into the treatment of individuals suspected of people smuggling offences who say that they are children, in collaboration with the AFP and CDPP. The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, the Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC), the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, the Department of Health and Ageing, the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (Customs), the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) and the Office of the Chief Scientist were consulted in preparing this submission. AGD, the AFP and CDPP have actively engaged with the Commission on the issue of age determination. The inquiry provides an opportunity to engage on the existing approach to age determination and on any improvements that are identified during the inquiry. Legislative and policy framework Policy context for establishing age Age determination is a challenging policy issue in the context of asylum seekers and people smuggling crew. It is important for asylum seekers and alleged people smuggling crew claiming to be minors to be treated appropriately. However, it is important that the people smuggling offences in the MigrationAct, which are serious Commonwealth offences, can be prosecuted effectively. Given the evidentiary requirements of the criminal justice system and the consequences of a conviction for people smuggling, it is important for the courts to have all available information where a people smuggling crew member claims to be a minor. In 2011, UNICEF reported that only half of the children under five years of age in the developing world have their births registered, with unregistered births accounting for nearly two thirds of births in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The vast majority of the crew of people smuggling ventures to Australia are Indonesian nationals. In Indonesia, the registry of births is localised and manual. Although Indonesian law requires a childs birth to be reported to the civil registry authorities within one month of the birth, the majority of Indonesians do not register their childs birth for various reasons, including a lack of awareness of registration facilities, illiteracy, economic considerations, or a lack of access to the Civil Registry Office. UNICEF has reported that only 55percent of Indonesian births were recorded between 2000 and 2008. In the context of Australia implementing international legal obligations towards minors, Australian agencies face challenges to establish identity and assess the age of persons from developing countries without proof of age. There is considerable incentive for people smuggling crew to claim to be minors, and people smuggling organisers to employ minors, given the combination of mandatory minimum penalties not applying to minors and the policy of only prosecuting minors for people smuggling in exceptional circumstances. Legislative framework for age determination in the criminal justice context This submission refers to the processes of age assessment and age determination, and it is useful to make the distinction between the two. An age assessment is undertaken by an agency for the purpose of making decisions about the persons treatment as they progress through immigration and investigation processes. However, such assessments are not conclusive. Age determinations are made by the court on the basis of all available evidence, including age assessments by agencies, and are determinative of age. Age determination procedures are those which are undertaken by agencies for the purpose of presenting evidence to the court. Following a series of challenges in the courts to age determination procedures conducted by investigating officials of individuals suspected of Commonwealth offences, Division4A of PartIAA of the CrimesAct1914 was enacted through the Crimes Amendment (Age Determination) Act2001. Division 4A of the Crimes Act sets out the legislative basis for prescribed age determination procedures, and section3ZQA allows the Governor-General to prescribe a specific age determination procedure for use in the criminal justice context in the CrimesRegulations1990. Where an investigating official suspects, on reasonable grounds, that a person may have committed a Commonwealth offence, and it is necessary to determine whether or not the person is, or was, at the time of the alleged offence, under 18, the investigating official can seek an order from a court to perform a prescribed procedure if the individual does not consent to that procedure. Before making an order to conduct a prescribed procedure, the court must be satisfied that there are reasonable grounds to suspect the person has committed a Commonwealth offence, there is uncertainty as to whether the person was under 18 at the time of the offence, and the uncertainty has to be resolved for the purposes of the persons detention, the investigation of the offence or the institution of criminal proceedings. Alternatively, if proceeding on the basis of consent, the investigating official must obtain consent from the person in respect of whom the procedure is sought, and either a parent or guardian, or if a parent or guardian is not available or acceptable to the person, an independent adult person capable of representing the interests of the person. A DIAC official may be an independent adult person, but an investigating official involved in the investigation of the offence must not act in that capacity. Life Without Barriers also performs this role for people smuggling crew. The information that must be provided to each person from whom consent is being sought includes: the purpose and reasons for which the prescribed procedure is to be carried out the nature of the procedure notification that the information obtained from carrying out the procedure could affect the manner of dealing with the person on whom the procedure is to be carried out the known health risks (if any) associated with the procedure notification that consent may be withdrawn at any time, and the person on whom the procedure is to be carried out may have, so far as reasonably practicable, a person of his or her choice present while the procedure is carried out. A wrist X-ray is currently the only prescribed procedure under the Crimes Regulations. The Crimes Regulations specify: the type of equipment to be used in performing a wrist X-ray the appropriate qualifications to take and interpret the wrist X-ray, and the relevant standards that must be complied with in performing the wrist X-ray. The Commonwealth is currently considering prescribing additional age determination procedures, including dental X-rays. People smuggling offences Australias domestic legislative framework criminalising people smuggling is set out in the MigrationAct for ventures entering Australia, and the Criminal Code for ventures entering foreign countries, whether or not via Australia. Key offences relevant to potential claims involving age are as follows: A primary offence, whereby a person is guilty if he or she organises or facilitates the illegal entry to Australia of a non-citizen. The offence carries a maximum penalty of imprisonment for 10years, a $110,000 fine, or both. An aggravated people smuggling offence involving exploitation or danger of death or serious harm. The maximum penalty is imprisonment for 20 years, a $220,000 fine, or both. For offences under the Migration Act, a mandatory minimum penalty of eight years imprisonment also applies, with a five year non-parole period. An aggravated offence involving smuggling five or more persons. This offence has a maximum penalty of imprisonment for 20 years, a $220,000 fine, or both. Additionally, the offence under the Migration Act has a mandatory minimum penalty of five years imprisonment, and a three year non-parole period for first time offenders. Where the court determines on the balance of probabilities that the accused was a minor when the offence was committed, the mandatory minimum penalties under the Migration Act do not apply. Prosecution of minors for people smuggling offences The Prosecution Policy of the Commonwealth (the Prosecution Policy) provides guidance on the prosecution of minors. Decisions to prosecute are made independently of government. The Prosecution Policy states that prosecution of a minor should always be regarded as a severe step and regard must be had to the public interest. In deciding whether the public interest warrants the prosecution of a minor, a range of factors are taken into account, including the seriousness of the offence, the sentencing options available in the relevant childrens court of the State or Territory, the minors family circumstances, and whether prosecution would have an unduly harsh effect on the minor. In accordance with the Prosecution Policy, minors are only prosecuted with people smuggling offences in exceptional circumstances on the basis of their significant involvement in a people smuggling venture or their involvement in multiple ventures. Other circumstances could include situations where a person is alleged to have been involved in a serious incident onboard the suspected irregular entry vessel (SIEV), such as a death, sexual assault or an incident involving serious harm. People smuggling crew who are assessed to be minors by law enforcement authorities or are found by a court to be a minor are returned to their country of origin unless the above exceptional circumstances apply. In determining whether a person is a minor in a people smuggling criminal proceeding, there has been some lack of consistency as to which party, if any, bears the onus of proof. The current position is that courts have generally attributed the onus of proof to the prosecution. However, this issue has been dealt with inconsistently by the courts.  To encourage consistency between the courts in each jurisdiction, the Commonwealth is considering possible amendments to the Migration Act to expressly provide that, where a defendant raises the issue of age during proceedings, the prosecution bears the legal burden to establish the defendant was an adult at the time the offence was committed. Age determination processes and evidence On 17February2011, the President of the Commission, theHonCatherine BransonQC, wrote to the former Attorney-General, theHonRobert McClellandMP, to raise concerns about the wrist Xray procedure used to assess age in the criminal justice context. In response, AGD chaired a working group with representatives from the AFP, CDPP and DIAC to consider alternative age determination procedures. In June 2011, the working group decided to adopt a combination of different age determination procedures, in order to overcome the potential for inaccuracies and increase diagnostic accuracy. This approach reflected the available academic literature, and was subsequently recommended to government. Following the working groups recommendations, on 8July2011 the Government announced a series of enhanced age determination procedures to supplement the existing wrist Xray procedure, including: offering voluntary dental X-rays to people smuggling crew claiming to be minors taking steps as early as possible to seek information from the individuals country of origin, including birth certificates, where age is contested, and voluntary interview techniques to help determine age. In addition, in a letter to the President of the Commission of 30 June 2011, the former AttorneyGeneral also advised that the benefit of the doubt principle would be applied more proactively where persons claim to be a minor. For matters prior to charge, where AFP age determination investigations reveal conflicting results, the individual would not be charged and will be removed from Australia. Where matters arise during the prosecution process, the CDPP takes into account the AFPs approach in considering whether a prosecution will continue in accordance with the Prosecution Policy. The implementation of these measures is designed to ensure that: only matters where the AFP and CDPP firmly believe the person to be an adult proceed to court, and where matters do proceed to court, the court has all the available evidence to assist it in determining age. The reliability of all age determination methods is subject to a margin of error. For example, the veracity of interviews and statements from relatives depends on an individuals truthfulness and memory; documents produced to establish age may be forged or inaccurate; and voluntary dental Xray analysis may be affected by socioeconomic factors. As such, while wrist X-rays and other measures of age are not individually conclusive, in combination they all play a valuable role in the age determination process. Figure1 below outlines a generic age determination process, highlighting all the steps that must be satisfied before continuing to investigate or prosecute a people smuggling crew member as an adult. The diagram shows all the age determination processes that must be undertaken before proceeding to charge someone as an adult, and also highlights that if there is any evidence to suggest that a person is a minor they will be treated accordingly. As at 27January2012, there were six people before the courts on people smuggling charges who were actively claiming to be minors. Consideration of these claims by the courts is at various stages. No one currently serving a sentence for people smuggling has been determined by a court to be a minor. Since September 2008 and as at 27 January 2012, 118 people smuggling crew have been returned to their country of origin because they were assessed to be a minor, given the benefit of the doubt by law enforcement authorities, or found by a court to be a minor. Of these, 37 people were assessed as minors on the basis of their wrist X-ray. In the period from September2008 to 27January2012, 208 people smuggling crew have claimed to be a minor. Of these, 123 had wrist X-rays undertaken. These wrist Xrays indicated that 86 of these persons were skeletally mature, while there are three awaiting a wrist X-ray or charging decision. Of the 86 people who were skeletally mature: six did not proceed to prosecution eight are currently before court (not all of whom are actively claiming to be minors) 44 had their prosecutions discontinued 25 were convicted, and three were found not guilty. The statistics show that implementation of the enhanced age determination processes announced on 8July2011, in addition to other ongoing improvements, have been effective in reducing the number of active age determination matters by resolving claims more quickly. This can be seen in Figure2 below, which tracks the number people smuggling crew under investigation or before the courts actively claiming to be a minor since AGD began preparing these statistics. In addition, there has been a significant increase in the number of people claiming to be minors voluntarily returned to their country of origin since the enhanced age determination processes were announced on 8July2011, as outlined in Figure3. Figure1: Diagram of AFP generic age determination processes  EMBED Visio.Drawing.11   Figure2: People smuggling crew before the courts actively claiming to be minors between 14September2011 and 27January2012  Figure3: People smuggling crew claiming to be minors removed since September2008 between 2March2011 and 25January2011 DIAC age assessments Shortly after arrival at Christmas Island, DIAC conducts an age assessment of all crew claiming to be minors. DIAC assesses the age of the person based on any documents available at the time of the assessment and a focussed age interview. If a crew member is assessed by DIAC to be an adult they are referred to the AFP for consideration of criminal investigation and for age determination processes to be conducted. The MigrationAct requires that all unlawful non-citizens are removed from Australia as soon a practicable when they have signed a request for removal. To allow time for the AFP to conduct its investigations a criminal justice stay certificate is issued by the AttorneyGeneral or her delegate, which prevents removal while the certificate remains in force. Crew assessed by DIAC to be minors are removed to their country of origin unless exceptional circumstances apply. X-rays Wrist, dental and clavicle X-rays are widely used internationally for age determination purposes and there is a significant body of scientific research underpinning these processes. The use of X-rays for age determination purposes is not conclusive and this is recognised by the AFP, CDPP or the courts. Wrist X-rays As an individual matures through childhood and adolescence, separate pieces of bones fuse with each other in the wrist and hand to eventually form the adult pattern. A determination of skeletal age is made by comparing an X-ray of the wrist and hand to a reference atlas. The Greulich and Pyle Atlas is the most commonly used reference atlas for assessing skeletal maturity. Based on expert advice the Commonwealth has sought, the wrist X-ray procedure can assist in determining whether a person is 19years or older as male wrist skeletal maturation occurs on average at that age. The CDPP will only rely upon wrist X-rays in circumstances where the wrist X-ray indicates that skeletal maturity has been reached and an expert radiologist states that there is the highest level of probability that the person is an adult. Accordingly, only those cases where there is the highest probability that the defendant was 18 years or older at the time of the offence are brought before the courts. The CDPP has been mindful of the evolving assessments by courts of evidentiary material relating to age. For example, in recent months, in the matters of R v Daud [2011] WADC 175 and R v RMA [2011] WADC 198, courts have made critical assessments of the use of statistical probabilities in relation to wrist X-ray evidence. Assessments by courts have informed the CDPPs consideration of these matters and the CDPP will only contest people smuggling matters where age is in issue where there is probative evidence other than the analysis of the wrist X-ray evidence to support the position that the defendant was an adult at the time of the offending. Commentary in the media has criticised wrist X-rays on the basis that the Greulich and Pyle Atlas was developed from a US study of white middle class children in the 1930s. While the issue is contested, a significant body of scientific and medical opinion has found that there is no significant difference in skeletal development between ethnic groups. The CDPP has specifically sought advice from an expert radiologist concerning the age of the studies that are used to analyse the wrist X-rays, the impact of racial differences on the results, and the impact of malnutrition on the procedure. The CDPP has been advised that there is no need for a reassessment of the Greulich and Pyle Atlas because anthropologically, the period of time since the studies is not long enough to see a change in skeletal development. The CDPP has also been advised that while there are racial differences in skeletal size, there is no change across races in skeletal development. Accordingly, the Greulich and Pyle Atlas can be applied as a standard for making forensic age determinations in ethnic groups that differ from the reference population. Further, malnutrition may impact on skeletal development, but only by increasing the time taken to reach skeletal maturity. Accordingly, any impact is likely to be in favour of the defendant as they would, if anything, appear younger than they actually are. When the CDPP intends to rely upon the analysis of a wrist X-ray in court, the CDPP obtains a full report from an expert radiologist. Adducing the radiologists report is not treated as conclusive proof of the defendants age. The wrist X-ray evidence is presented to the court for evaluation, and it is open to the defendants legal representatives to challenge that evidence. The report and testimony provided by the expert radiologist ensure that the court is aware of the probability associated with the assessment of the persons age. The report also outlines the expert radiologists qualifications, the procedure for making age determinations using an X-ray, details of the Greulich and Pyle Atlas and the studies on which it is based, and the limitations associated with the procedure. The expert is available for cross-examination by the defence, which may also call its own experts to give evidence on the conclusions to be drawn from the wrist X-ray analysis. After considering the X-ray evidence and any other evidence that may be available, the court determines the persons age on the balance of probabilities independently of the AFP and CDPP. Alleged people smuggling crew generally consent to undertaking wrist X-rays as they are verbally advised during the interview process that an application for a court order to carry out a prescribed procedure on a person may be made. As at 27January2012, 123 wrist X-rays have been undertaken with only two requiring an application for a court order. Dental X-rays As dental X-rays are not a prescribed procedure, the AFP has been offering them on a voluntary basis to people smuggling crew claiming to be minors since the announcement of the enhanced age determination procedures on 8July2011. While the AFP has offered 24 dental X-rays to date, none have been accepted. The dental X-ray procedure involves the radiographic analysis of developing and developed teeth which are compared to a relevant researched database. The procedure utilises a radiograph of the type routinely used by dentists and dental specialists, and involves an external X-ray moving around the jaw line area of the face without any physical contact or intrusion. No X-ray films are placed inside the mouth of the person being X-rayed. The dental X-ray is then compared to a reference database compiled by specialist forensic odontologists, all of whom are members of the Australian Society of Forensic Odontology (AuSFO). The AuSFO guidelines for age estimation require that an examining orthodontist, having reached a conclusion, must refer the matter to another forensic specialist for a second opinion. Accordingly, where a dental X-ray is used for age determination purposes, there would need to be two forensic specialists in agreement as to the assessed age. Advice received by the AFP is that a comparison of an Indonesian national with the available databases would have a variation range of zero to 12 months, and that the available research indicates 95 per cent of a given group of individuals will fall within this variation range. The remaining five per cent will fall outside the range due to genetic and environmental factors. There are ethnic variations in tooth development that must be accounted for in using dental X-rays as an age determination procedure. The AFP has been advised that while there are no databases based on direct studies of Indonesians, there are studies on a number of other Asian ethnic groups which provide a sufficiently representative sample to enable a reliable estimation of age. Should dental X-ray evidence be used in contesting a persons claim to be a minor, expert reports would be obtained and the experts called to give evidence at any age determination hearing. The expert reports and evidence would address the method used, provide a rationale for selecting that method, outline the limitations of that method and detail the dataset used in estimating age. This information would ensure the court is aware that dental X-rays cannot conclusively determine age and can give the appropriate weight to the dental X-rays after considering all the available evidence. The defence would also be able to cross examine the prosecutions experts, and call their own experts to provide evidence on the issue. The AFP commenced offering dental X-rays based on expert advice that the efficacy of dental Xrays is sufficient to warrant inclusion as an appropriate voluntary procedure to supplement wrist X-rays for age determination purposes in the criminal justice context. The Commonwealth is considering adding dental X-rays as a prescribed procedure in the Crimes Regulations, which would allow investigating officials to seek an order from a court to conduct a dental X-ray and subject them to the same procedural safeguards as wrist X-rays. Ethical issues with the use of radiography Some medical experts and professional associations have expressed an ethical objection to the use of X-rays for age determination purposes. This objection is based on the view that a person should only be exposed to ionising radiation from X-rays where it is medically required and not for an administrative purpose such as age determination. People smuggling crew claiming to be minors typically consent to having a wrist X-ray performed where age is disputed during an investigation. For those cases where people smuggling crew members do not consent to the taking of an X-ray, it is necessary to balance the ethical issues and the need to ensure the effective operation of the criminal justice system. In enacting the Crimes Amendment (Age Determination) Act2001, the Parliament decided that the ability of an investigating official to seek an order from a court requiring a person to undergo a prescribed procedure in these circumstances is appropriate provided the legislative safeguards are met. These safeguards include the requirement that all X-rays are taken by qualified radiographers. The Commonwealth has been advised that the radiation exposure associated with wrist and dental X-rays is minimal. ARPANSA estimates that the radiation dose received from a single X-ray examination of the hand is approximately 0.01 millisievert (mSv). This dosage is comparable to flying from Darwin to Singapore and is significantly less than flying from Melbourne to London, which is about 0.07 mSv. Research also indicates that there is wide acceptance in the scientific community that the dosage of radiation from a wrist X-ray poses negligible risks to a persons health. ARPANSA has also advised that the use of wrist and dental X-rays for age determination purposes satisfy internationally accepted principles of radiation protection. This includes the principles of justification and optimisation which require that any exposure must do more good than harm overall, and be the least dose of radiation needed to achieve the necessary goal. The Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs Legislation Committee heard evidence that there were minimal health risks associated with exposure to ionising radiation from wrist X-rays in its inquiry into the Crimes Amendment (Age Determination) Bill 2001. On the basis of that evidence, the Committee did not comment on or make any recommendations on the issue of radiation exposure from wrist X-rays in its report and recommended wrist X-rays be used as a prescribed procedure. In supporting the current arrangements, the Commonwealth gives substantial weight to the impact of age determination on individuals. In many cases, being assessed as an adult can result in the application of mandatory minimum penalties under the Migration Act. Alternatively, being assessed as a minor will result in the persons return to their country of origin, provided there are no exceptional circumstances that would warrant the persons prosecution. Accordingly, it is important to the individual and the integrity of the criminal justice system for courts to be presented with all the available evidence of a persons age from a range of sources. It is also important to recognise that wrist X-rays are beneficial not only as evidence that a person is an adult, but as evidence that a person is a minor. To that end, 37 of the 118 people returned to their country of origin since September 2008, were assessed as minors on the basis of wrist X-ray evidence. It is the Commonwealths view that the health risks associated with wrist X-rays are outweighed by the serious consequences to the individual, and the criminal justice system more broadly, of an age determination made on the basis of insufficient evidence. This view is further supported by international precedent, as the Commonwealth understands that X-rays for age determination purposes are currently utilised, to varying degrees, in Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, Malta, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States. Interviews The AFP offers anyone suspected of committing a Commonwealth offence an opportunity to participate in an interview as part of the normal course of an investigation. The AFP asks questions about age as an ordinary part of this interview in cases where age is in dispute, including about the persons background, education, family and work experience among other things. Interviews with the AFP are conducted in accordance with PartIC of the Crimes Act, which imposes obligations on investigating officials that protect the rights of people under arrest. The obligations in PartIC protect rights including: the right to communicate with a friend, relative and legal practitioner the right to have a parent, guardian, legal practitioner or independent person present for the interview the right to an interpreter the right to communicate with a consular office, and the right to remain silent. To comply with the requirements of Part IC, participation in an interview with the AFP is voluntary and people smuggling crew cannot be compelled. Accordingly, the use of interviews with the AFP for age determination purposes is limited to circumstances where the crew member consents. Typically, crew decline to be interviewed as it is voluntary under Part IC. Age inquiries in the crews country of origin Documentation Credible documentary evidence is not always available to support the claims to age of people smuggling crew. In these circumstances, the AFP seeks to verify the authenticity of the information provided with the country of origin. Age documentation evidence can be obtained through police-to-police cooperation or through a formal mutual legal assistance request to another country. Mutual assistance requests are made by the Attorney-General or her delegate on behalf of operational agencies such as the AFP. This process is governed by the Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters Act 1987. A formal mutual assistance request is required where evidence is needed in an admissible form or where the foreign country requires a formal request to provide the assistance sought. The Foreign Evidence Act 1994 provides a mechanism for adducing material received from a foreign country in response to a mutual assistance request. Even where a mutual assistance request is urgent and prioritised, it can take several months or years to receive material sought. Accordingly, wherever possible, the AFP works with foreign law enforcement agencies through its international network on a police-to-police basis to obtain and verify documents such as birth certificates and school records, and support the execution of mutual assistance requests where a formal request is required. Police-to-police cooperation is generally faster. However, police-to-police cooperation can still take a significant period of time due to factors such as other law enforcement priorities, road and telecommunications infrastructure, record-keeping practices and geography. To manage the risk of delays, the AFP seeks documentation as soon as it becomes aware that a people smuggling crew member claims to be a minor, and cooperates closely with the Indonesian National Police (INP) to prioritise requests for assistance. Commentary in the media has suggested that the AFP should deploy officers to Indonesia to undertake these inquiries independently of the INP. In the absence of an agreement with the host government to conduct these inquiries and legislation enabling the AFP to exercise police powers in a foreign country, there is no lawful basis for the AFP to obtain this type of evidence. Statements from relatives On occasion, AFP requests to the INP for assistance in obtaining documentation also results in the provision of statements from friends and relatives as to the age of a people smuggling crew member. In some cases, defendants have independently provided statements from friends and relatives to support their claims to be a minor. Where an age determination matter proceeds to a hearing before a court, the CDPP does not generally oppose defence counsel adducing statements from friends and relatives, even where the requirements of the Foreign Evidence Act have not been satisfied, and notwithstanding the limited opportunity for the CDPP to test the veracity of these statements before the courts. Other material The AFP and CDPP consider all material in support of a persons claim to be a minor, and if this is assessed to be credible they will be given the benefit of the doubt and returned to their country of origin, unless there are exceptional circumstances. Other types of evidence that may be considered includes other types of X-rays, the crew members physical appearance, psychological and behavioural assessments, DIAC age assessments, the crew members evidence, evidence from cultural experts and any impressions passenger witnesses formed concerning the crew members age during the voyage. International practice Age determination processes and procedures are conducted in a number of countries facing similar challenges to Australia in both immigration and criminal justice contexts. It is particularly useful to consider the age determination frameworks in like-minded countries. Accordingly, discussion of the current frameworks in the UnitedKingdom (UK) and the United States of America (US) is set out below. A broader summary of age determination procedures in a selected group of countries for which information is available is set out at AttachmentA. United Kingdom The UK does not have a statutory framework to assess the age of persons who claim to be minors. While UK immigration and welfare agencies, courts and investigative bodies have statutory powers to assess age, there is no prescribed methodology. Age determination procedures throughout the UK are based on a combination of polices produced by the UK Home Office, policies and practices of local authorities, and judicial guidance. The UK has adopted a holistic approach to age assessment. While the UK Home Office occasionally used X-rays in the 1970s and early 1980s to help determine age, the practice was discontinued because it seemed at the time that, while posing negligible health risks, they offered limited extra value over other age assessment techniques. However, following increased pressures on immigration and support systems, and in consideration of wider European Union practice and research indicating that X-ray analysis may be more reliable than previously thought, the issue was re-examined by the UK Government in public consultations throughout 2007 and 2008. The UK Border Agency (UKBA) guidelines implemented in August2011 do not impose obligations on authorities to conduct X-ray examinations. However, they do permit authorities to consider such evidence if submitted by a person disputing an age assessment by the UKBA or a local authority. Unlawful non-citizens are processed on arrival in the UK by the UKBA. UKBA policy is to conduct an initial age assessment on all persons who claim to be minors, where there is little or no evidence of their claim and their claim is doubted. UKBA officers are instructed to treat the person as an adult if their physical appearance and demeanour very strongly suggests that they are significantly over 18 years of age. All other persons are to be afforded the benefit of the doubt and treated as minors. Local authorities throughout the UK also conduct age assessments, in order to determine eligibility for services under the 鱨վ Act 1989 (UK). While there is no prescribed way in which local authority assessments must be carried out, the courts have provided general guidance. The leading case is B, R (on the application of) v London Borough of Merton, in which the UK High Court set out basic requirements for the assessment of individuals claiming to be minors, including procedural fairness requirements. The court also held that local authorities cannot determine age solely on the basis of the applicants appearance, except in clear cases, and the decision maker must seek to elicit the applicants general background, including family circumstances and cultural information. If there is reason to doubt the applicants claimed age, the decision-maker must assess the applicant's credibility, and local authorities must not apply a presumption of age prior to making an age assessment. Persons come to the attention of local authorities in a number of ways. For example, a person may be referred to a local authority by UKBA after being initially assessed as a minor, while others may approach local authorities independently, either before or after an UKBA initial age assessment. The UKBA is able to accept local authority age assessments as evidence of age. In addition to interviews conducted by social workers, a range of other evidence of the persons age may be considered by local authorities and by the UKBA. This evidence includes travel and identity documents, birth certificates, visa applications and biometric data, paediatrician reports and dental age assessments and X-ray reports. The UKBA recommends that care is taken in considering all of these sources of evidence. For example, documents may have been obtained improperly, and paediatrician reports and dental and X-ray reports have a margin of error. There are several facilitation offences under the Immigration Act 1971 (UK), including an offence for facilitating entry by asylum seekers to the UK for gain. Where the defendant in a criminal proceeding appears to be a minor, or claims to be a minor, the court is required to inquire into their age, and the age presumed or declared by the court is deemed to be their true age. The statutory provisions for sentencing also require that a defendants age is deemed to be that which the court determines after considering any available evidence. UKBA age assessments inform the decision to refer a case to the Crown Prosecution Service for prosecution. However, any decision about age in criminal proceedings must be based on more than simply the persons physical appearance and demeanour. In making an age determination, the court may consider UKBA and local authority age assessments.  However, as in Australia, the probative value for all evidence is a matter for the courts. While evidence from dental examinations and bone X-rays is admissible in the UK, courts have indicated such evidence should not be considered strongly persuasive of establishing a claimant's age. Similarly, recent case-law indicates that paediatric evidence must not be given more weight than Merton compliant age assessments, and documentary evidence does not carry a presumption of authenticity. The legislative provisions requiring courts to determine age do not indicate which party bears the onus of proof. Recent cases indicate that in civil proceedings, the court makes an age determination after assessing the available evidence. If a decision cannot be made on that basis, the person seeking to establish his or her age bears the onus of proof. However, this rule is not settled, and it is unclear whether the burden of proof generally applied in the civil context also applies to prosecuting immigration offences in the criminal context. United States of America The age determination process in the US is regulated by a legislative and policy framework, and there is prescribed methodology that agencies must use in the age determination process. The framework is similar to the current arrangements in Australia. The Department of Homeland Securitys Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) enforces US immigration law. Where ICE apprehends unaccompanied unlawful non-citizens under the age of 18 years, they must be transferred into the custody of the Department of Health and Human Services Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) to await deportation or transfer to a legal guardian in the United States for asylum processing or criminal prosecution. The need to verify a detained individuals age can arise at any point between apprehension, and release from custody or conviction. Accordingly, both the ICE and the ORR may be required to conduct an age assessment of a person not readily identifiable as an adult or a minor. The age determination process is governed by the following arrangements: The Flores Settlement Agreement (1997) between the Department of Justice and a coalition of immigrants rights groups establishes guidance on the treatment of minors in the custody of immigration officials, including a requirement that minors be detained separately from unrelated adults. While the agreement does not describe exact procedures for establishing age, it instructs that if a reasonable person would conclude that an unlawful non-citizen detained by immigration officials is an adult, despite their claim to be a minor, the individual shall be treated as an adult. The agreement also provides that immigration officials may require an unlawful non-citizen to submit to a medical or dental examination conducted by a medical professional, or to other appropriate procedures, to verify his or her age. The William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection and Reauthorization Act of 2008 (US), effective 23 March 2009, requires the Department of Health and Human Services to develop procedures for making a prompt determination of the age of an alien in consultation with the Department of Homeland Security. While the Act did not specify which methods to use in the age determination process, it established a minimum requirement that the governments procedures take into account multiple forms of evidence, including the nonexclusive use of radiographs for age determinations. The Department of Health and Human Services issued program instructions on 15September2010, which noted the challenges in determining the age of persons in immigration custody, including unavailable documentation, contradictory or fraudulent identity documentation and/or statements, physical appearance, and the diminished capacity of the person. The instructions also listed the types of information that must be sought by officials as evidence of age (noting it is not necessary to provide information from every category): Government-issued documents such as birth certificates, and other objective documentation that indicates the persons date of birth (for example, baptismal certificates, school records and medical records). Statements by the person, individuals determined to have personal knowledge of the persons age, the persons parent or legal guardian, and other persons. Information from another government agency, including from Federal, State, local or foreign governments, such as state/local arrest records and child welfare agency records. Medical age determination procedures, including dental examinations and bone age determinations such as hand wrist radiographs. These procedures may be used as a last resort if no other information is available. Ambiguous, debatable or borderline results will be resolved in favor of determining the person as a minor. The examining doctor must submit a written report indicating the probability percentage that the unlawful non-citizen is a minor or an adult. As in Australia, the use of skeletal X-rays in the US has received scrutiny from medical bodies and congressional committees on the basis that the results are not reliable and could lead to individuals being inappropriately assigned to adult or minor facilities. In 2008, the House Appropriations Committee suggested that ICE employ holistic age-determination methodologies. In 2009, the House Committee, concerned that the the Department has not ceased its reliance on bone and dental forensics for child age determination, directed ICE to conduct a review of age determination practices. The Department of Homeland Security and ICE conducted reviews into what might constitute a holistic approach to age determination, but neither agency was able to identify a single, authoritative definition of what might constitute such an approach. Both ICE and the Department of Homeland Security have recognised the limits of radiography for age determination purposes, including biological, nutritional, racial and socioeconomic variants. However, acknowledging that radiographic exams can provide a usable age range, rather than an exact age, ICE regards radiographs as a useful age assessment tool to be used in conjunction with other assessment methods. An additional advantage noted by the Department of Homeland Security is they can be completed quickly, which assists officials to meet the time constraints in the Flores Settlement Agreement. Comparison of the Australian system with the UK and US systems While it is important not to directly compare age assessment procedures conducted for very different civil, humanitarian and criminal justice purposes, there are several useful observations to be made from a comparison of the Australian, UK and US systems. Firstly, in the UK, the person claiming age as an issue is required to present evidence to the UKBA and local authorities, which make age assessments on the available evidence. Without a positive obligation on authorities to establish age, or any requirement to conduct X-rays for age determination purposes, any X-ray evidence that is submitted to the UK authorities or courts is brought forward by the applicant. The ongoing prevalence of dental age assessment and X-ray evidence in the UK courts suggests that, while the veracity of such evidence may be disputed, applicants relying on such evidence accept the reliability and ethical underpinnings of such techniques. Secondly, while there is significant advocacy for a holistic approach to age assessment, research conducted by the US authorities revealed there is no one authoritative definition of such an approach. Certainly, there is no uniform method across like-minded countries. For example, the UKBA relies heavily on the persons physical appearance and demeanour in initial age assessments, while the courts in the UK have indicated a different approach. The US specifically describes the persons physical appearance as a challenge to effective age determination. Courts in Australia consider the persons physical appearance as one of several factors in the age assessment process. Thirdly, the holistic approach to age determination in the UK does not appear to have resulted in fewer disputes about age, and the UK faces a number of challenges arising from its largely unregulated approach. These include the lack of consistency in age determinations across its jurisdictions, and concerns about preserving the integrity of the welfare and immigration systems, while acknowledging the close link between the two in the age determination context. In addition, like other forms of age assessment, Merton-compliant assessments also have a margin of error, due to each social workers subjective interpretation of how certain behaviour indicates chronological age. The unique challenges faced in each jurisdiction reflect the difficulty of formulating effective age determination policy, and the careful balancing of interests required by law-makers. Further, with significant incentives for persons to be assessed as minorsnoting the observations by JusticeStanley Burnton in Merton that it would be nave to assume that the applicant is unaware of the advantages of being thought to be a childthe age determination debate appears to be unduly focussed on the reliability of X-ray evidence. However, as the above discussion indicates, the problem is perhaps more accurately reflected in the fact that age assessment is an inexact science, yet has significant ramifications for the individuals involved. This dichotomy poses a challenge for any country seeking to balance immigration objectives with safeguarding the needs and welfare of children. Criminal processes for crew claiming to be minors Interception and investigation arrangements SIEVs are typically intercepted by Customs or the Royal Australian Navy (Navy) between Indonesia and Christmas Island or Ashmore Reef. Under current Commonwealth policy, the crew and passenger witnesses from SIEVs are transferred to Customs or Navy vessels and transported to Christmas Island for processing. On intercepting a SIEV, Customs and Navy personnel are required to identify, collect and secure all items of evidentiary significance and keep records of this process. Customs or Navy personnel prepare a nominal roll of the crew and passenger witnesses on each venture, which includes nationality details along with a breakdown of the number of men, women, accompanied and unaccompanied minors, and identifies the SIEVs crew. All of this needs to be captured in statements, compliant with jurisdictional court requirements, and duly sworn and attested to. The crew of Customs and Navy patrol vessels make every effort to complete nominal rolls and evidence gathering immediately after the interception occurs. However, this is often not achievable when SIEVs are intercepted in the vicinity of Christmas Island. The weather conditions and associated safety issues in this environment mean it is often necessary to move the crew and passengers ashore as quickly as possible and only basic inquiries can be undertaken before they arrive on Christmas Island. To satisfy continuity requirements, care must be taken to record all movement or exchange of items of evidentiary significance, so that the integrity of any evidence is not compromised. Proof of continuity is an essential requirement, and enables the prosecution to prove beyond reasonable doubt that evidence located onboard a SIEV, such as a passengers diary, is the same evidence exhibited in court. Passengers and crew arriving at Christmas Island undergo similar processes to any passenger arrival in Australia. Those on board must first be processed by both Customs and the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS). This process can be lengthy where none of the people onboard the SIEV possess any documentation. Obtaining records and statements from the Customs and Navy personnel who intercepted the SIEV often creates delays in the brief preparation process, as the facilities available to those onboard are limited, and witnesses are often delayed by competing operational requirements. This is particularly the case where Customs and Navy personnel do not return to shore for long periods. After processing by Customs and AQIS, the passengers and crew are placed in immigration detention, during which time DIAC officers seek to confirm the ages of the crew members. All crew claiming to be minors are age assessed by DIAC using any available documentation and a focussed age interview. Where the age assessment process determines that a crew member is over the age of 18, they are referred to the AFP for criminal investigation and remain in immigration detention until the investigation is finalised. Once the crew are placed in immigration detention, the AFP executes a warrant upon Serco, a private company outsourced by DIAC to operate Australias immigration detention facilities, to obtain all the evidentiary material secured on interception. This process must be undertaken in accordance with the legislative requirements associated with warrants. Interpreters are relied upon heavily by investigators when interviewing passengers and crew. Languages required by the interpreters can often be anticipated but this is not always the case, and delays may occur if an interpreter is required for a language other than those catered for by existing interpreters. In establishing the elements of the aggravated offence of people smuggling (at least five people), particularly that the person facilitated the smuggling of people, the AFP takes a number of witness statements from passengers who travelled on the vessel which identify each crew member and the nature of the facilitation by that crew member. Typically, the evidence might be that one crew member steered the vessel, another navigated, and others ensured passengers remained below deck and out of sight when in the vicinity of land or other vessels. In this way, the charge is satisfied but it is only via the evidence of those passengers onboard that this can be achieved. One of the first things undertaken in the investigation is a photo board for the purpose of having witnesses identify suspects. The AFP is required to conduct a line up but it would be unfair to the suspect to conduct a line up on Christmas Island because there is no availability of sufficiently similar looking people on Christmas Island who can participate. Accordingly, the AFP relies upon NSW Police to create photo boards for this purpose. The investigation is unable to proceed until the photo board is created and supplied. The witness statement cannot be commenced until such time as the photo board process has been conducted because much of the statement will reference the identity of the crew. The identification of crew from the photo board must be recorded and supporting statements need to be prepared for use in court, which can also take time. Statements are taken from witnesses, and suspects are interviewed, again using interpreters. On Christmas Island, arrangements need to be made with Serco to transport those in immigration detention to the location where the interview will be conducted. Bookings need to be made for transport, the location of the interview and the services of the interpreter. In the case of Indonesian nationals, it is a consular requirement that a legal advisor must be notified in order to attend any interview. This all needs to be conducted at times of the days suitable to the detention centre. Items of evidence often require interrogation and analysis. In the case of mobile phones or GPS equipment they need to be analysed by an expert. Forensic examination of certain evidentiary items is also necessary. Experts and forensic analysis tools are not generally available on Christmas Island and evidentiary items have to be moved to another location for examination. Often there are delays in both conveying the materials off Christmas Island and in having the analysis conducted, as these services are in great demand. The process of analysis can itself be lengthy. Despite the numerous factors that can cause delay, the AFP has, after considerable effort, reduced the time it takes to investigate and prepare a brief of evidence to approximately 90 days from the point of interception. Immigration detention arrangements and facilities DIAC maintains several different types of immigration detention facilities intended for different types of clients, including: immigration detention centres (IDCs) immigration residential housing (IRH) immigration transit accommodation (ITA), and alternative places of detention (APODs). People smuggling crew who claim to be minors are not placed in IDCs, which are the highest security facility in the Australian immigration detention network. Instead they are accommodated in low security APODs within the immigration detention network. On arrival at Christmas Island, all people smuggling crew are initially held in an APOD. Crew assessed to be minors continue to be held in an APOD until they are removed to their country of origin or charged if there are exceptional circumstances. Alternatively, crew assessed to be adults may be transferred to an IDC while the AFP finalises its investigation. It is open to alleged people smuggling crew to change their personal information at any stage, including their date of birth. As those classified as adults cannot access benefits such as education while in the care of DIAC, and those that are classified as minors cannot purchase or smoke cigarettes, some alleged crew members provide Australian authorities with incorrect details, or change their details on a number of occasions. Where a crew member DIAC assesses to be a minor is not referred to the AFP and has not sought protection in Australia, DIAC arranges removal to Indonesia with the assistance of the International Organization for Migration as required. In many cases, the process of removal can take some time, as DIAC must arrange appropriate institutional care in their country of origin, and arrange for the person to be accompanied during their travel. Arrest and charge Generally prosecutions for people smuggling offences are commenced by the AFP by way of charge. The AFP makes this decision after it has completed its investigation and is satisfied that there is sufficient evidence for an arrest to take place. One week prior to charge, the AFP notifies the relevant police and corrections authorities of the State or Territory in which the person will be charged. Arrangements are then made to transport the person to the relevant jurisdiction. The timeframes for charging a person may be impacted by the number of crew to be transported, and the availability of beds in the jurisdictions remand facilities. The AFP seeks to ensure that a completed brief of evidence is available to the CDPP prior to charge. The process between when the brief is finalised and when the suspect is charged before the court takes approximately two weeks. After the suspect is charged the court dictates the progress of the matter. That is, the AFP has no control over the process or associated timeframes. Accelerated timeframes may apply because the defendant is in custody but even the most efficient court will be curtailed by timetabling and availability. The most expedient of matters are likely to progress from charge to trial in approximately six months. Arrangements for bail and remand Federal offenders are housed in State and Territory prisons in accordance with section120 of the Constitution. The States and Territories are responsible for managing federal offenders within prisons, including the assessment of each prisoners security classification and whether it is desirable to physically separate certain classes of prisoners, such as crew claiming to be minors. Where a people smuggling crew member has been charged as an adult but claims to be a minor, the AFP provides State and Territory correctional authorities with all available information concerning their claims to age. This enables State and Territory correctional authorities to manage that person appropriately. While people smuggling crew may apply to the court for bail, they are typically remanded into the custody of the relevant State or Territory correctional authorities. State and Territory correctional authorities generally hold remandees on the basis of the date of birth listed on the lawful warrant issued at the time of arrest. The CDPP generally does not oppose applications for bail made by people smuggling defendants who claim to have been a minor at the time of the offence. Provided the defendants legal representative makes an application for bail, and this is granted by the court, the defendant will be released into immigration detention as an unlawful non-citizen until the court either reconsiders the issue of bail or the outcome of their prosecution is known. Court processes If the AFP charges a person as an adult, the defendant can challenge the jurisdiction of the court to hear the matter on the basis that they are a minor. This can occur at any stage in the process, but typically occurs at committal. Jurisdiction can also be challenged multiple times throughout a matter. If a defendant challenges the jurisdiction of the court, the court schedules an age determination hearing, and the defendants legal representatives may provide the CDPP with information to support this claim. Where age is raised as an issue before the court, the CDPP seeks to work with a defendants legal representatives to expedite the timing of the age determination hearing. This enables a defendant who is subsequently determined to be a minor to be returned to their country of origin as soon as possible. However, the timing of the age determination hearing is ultimately determined by the court and can be delayed by issues such as available court dates and the need to allow time for the defendants legal representatives to collect evidence. There have been a number of cases where people smuggling crew have not raised age as an issue until they are before the court, sometimes at late stages of proceedings. In response to this issue, in November2011 the CDPP took the exceptional step of writing to the legal representatives of all people smuggling crew before the courts who were not actively claiming to be a minor but had previously indicated age as an issue. In these letters, the CDPP asked the defendants legal representatives to clarify whether age was an issue. The CDPP also wrote to the legal representatives of all people smuggling crew before the courts who were actively claiming to be a minor to outline its position on bail for such defendants. In determining whether to contest a defendants claim to be a minor, the CDPP has regard to all of the available information concerning their age. If the CDPP decides to contest the claim to be a minor, full reports from any medical experts are obtained and disclosed to the defendants legal representative in accordance with the Statement on Prosecution Disclosure. As outlined above, evidence led by the CDPP in an age determination hearing, including medical evidence, is not treated as conclusive proof of age. Additionally, it is open to the defendants legal representatives to call their own witnesses in support the defendants claim to be a minor. Ultimately, the assessment of any evidence led and the determination of age is a matter for the courts. If a defendant is determined to be a minor, the CDPP will discontinue the prosecution unless there are exceptional circumstances that warrant the prosecution continuing as outlined above. If the CDPP intends to continue the prosecution, it may be remitted to the relevant childrens court depending on the jurisdiction. Alternatively, if the defendant is determined to be an adult, the prosecution will continue. If the decision is made at the committal stage, generally the defendant can re-litigate the issue at the trial stage. The defendant may raise age as an issue again at sentencing if additional evidence becomes available to support their claim. Otherwise, the defendant may appeal the decision to a higher court. Custodial arrangements for sentenced prisoners Defendants convicted of a people smuggling offence as an adult and sentenced to a term of imprisonment would be held by State and Territory correctional authorities as an adult. If a defendant were convicted of a people smuggling offence as a minor and sentenced to a term of imprisonment, they would be held in an appropriate juvenile facility. Time spent in immigration detention and on remand by persons convicted of people smuggling offences are generally taken into account at sentencing. However, there is potential for inconsistent application across some jurisdictions. Legal aid arrangements Following the High Courts decision in Dietrich, the provision of legal representation for people charged with serious Commonwealth criminal offences, including people smuggling, is necessary to avoid the risk of prosecutions being stayed indefinitely. Legal aid funded lawyers are responsible for providing legal advice and representing people smuggling crew in court. This includes providing advice, both prior to charging and while before the court, on whether to raise age as an issue and the most appropriate way to do so. In addition, it is also the responsibility of legal aid funded lawyers to interrogate the evidence led by the CDPP and challenge it where appropriate, including evidence as to the age of people smuggling crew who claim to be minors. Legal representation for people smuggling crew is funded separately through the Expensive Commonwealth Criminal Cases Fund (ECCCF) by way of reimbursement of State and Territory legal aid commissions. The ECCCF ensures that these prosecutions do not impact on the ability of legal aid commissions to provide other types of assistance to disadvantaged and vulnerable people. Legal aid commissions can seek reimbursement of costs from the ECCCF when the cost of providing assistance in a matter, or class of criminal cases that are similar in nature, exceeds $40,000. Funding from the ECCCF may be used to reimburse costs incurred by legal aid commissions in providing legal representation to defendants through a grant of aid. A grant of aid would cover legal fees and reasonable disbursement costs. This would include the cost of gathering evidence in Indonesia to establish a defendants age. International obligations Detention of crew claiming to be minors The appropriate management and safety of detainees, prisoners and remandees is a priority for all Australian authorities, and the Commonwealth is responsible for ensuring Australia meets its international legal obligations towards children. Under the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), the best interests of the child must be a primary consideration in every decision that affects minors, including persons in detention. To determine what is in the best interests of the child, the Committee on the Rights of the Child has indicated that authorities must conduct a clear and comprehensive assessment of the childs identity, including nationality, upbringing, ethnic, cultural and linguistic background, particularly vulnerabilities and protection needs. The CRC contains several requirements for the treatment of children in detention, which complement the best interests of the child principle. In particular, article 37 of the CRC requires authorities to separate children in detention from adults, unless it is considered in the childs best interest not to do so. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) also contains separation requirements in paragraphs 2(b) and 3 of article 10. The Commonwealth, upon ratification of the CRC and ICCPR, made reservations to the effect that Australia accepts the obligation to separate minors from adults, only to the extent that such segregation is considered by the responsible authorities to be feasible and beneficial to the minors or adults concerned. The Commonwealth aims to ensure that age determination of a person is made at the earliest possible stage. In conformity with the views of the Committee for the Rights of the Child, Australian authorities take into account a range of considerations for borderline cases, including a persons claim about age, the physical appearance of the individual, as well as his or her psychological maturity. In the event of remaining uncertainty about the persons age, the individual is given the benefit of the doubt that he or she is in fact a minor. In the immigration context, DIAC seeks to ensure crew who are assessed as minors are housed in facilities appropriate for minors. Where a person is charged and remanded to a State or Territory detention facility, the Commonwealth works closely with relevant correctional authorities by providing all available information about age. In both immigration and criminal justice contexts, where a person claims to be a minor but the available evidence indicates the person is an adult, the interests of the person are balanced carefully against the interests of other minors in determining appropriate housing arrangements. The CDPP generally does not oppose applications for bail made by people smuggling defendants who claim to have been a minor at the time of the offence. Where bail is approved, the person is returned to immigration detention to be housed in an appropriate facility for minors. Guardianship Under the Immigration Guardianship of 鱨վ Act 1946 (the IGOC Act), the Minister for Immigration and Citizenship is the guardian of certain unaccompanied non-citizen minors who arrive in Australia with an intention to permanently reside. Alleged people smuggling crew claiming to be minors generally do not fall within the scope of the IGOC Act as they do not intend to permanently reside in Australia when they arrive in Australia. However, as DIAC has a duty of care towards crew claiming to be minors, Life Without Barriers is engaged as an independent observer for them while they undergo any formal process in immigration facilities, including for criminal justice purposes of interviews and conducting wrist X-rays. Life Without Barriers is the contracted service provider of independent observer services on Christmas Island and mainland Australia. The independent observer provides pastoral or physical support to a minor or a person that claims to be a minor throughout interviews and other formal processes, and ensures the treatment of individuals in immigration detention is fair, appropriate and reasonable. However, the independent observer has no custody, guardianship or advocacy responsibilities. During a formal process, the independent observer builds rapport with the person claiming to be a minor, with the intention of being able to reassure and assist them while they are in the care of DIAC. The independent observer role is undertaken by staff who are professionals at working with young people and have experience in managing the psychological and emotional issues often encountered. Staff from Life Without Barriers attend interviews for minors conducted by the AFP. In attending the interview, the independent observer is required to: observe the interaction between the interpreter and the child or young person, and advise the interviewer of any concerns observe the conduct of the interview / examination / assessment and the demeanour and presentation of the person, be attentive to non-verbal cues of the person that indicates a need to take a break, and to draw to the attention of the interviewer any concerns about the persons emotional and physical state provide a reassuring and friendly presence for the person ensure each process is adequately explained and understood by the person, and be attentive to signs that the person may benefit from trauma counselling and provide this advice to DIAC. Life Without Barriers independent observers have been asked to consent to a prescribed procedure on behalf of a person claiming to be a minor as an independent person within the scope of the provisions under the Crimes Act. Consular notification and representation Indonesians detained in Australia for people smuggling are able to access consular assistance in accordance with the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (VCCR) and the Arrangement on Consular Notification and Assistance (the Consular Arrangement) with Indonesia. Individuals who are detained are provided with advice about how to exercise their right to consular assistance. The Commonwealth has also put in place arrangements to assist Indonesia to ensure State and Territory corrections agencies provide Indonesian prisoners with all the appropriate information to make an informed decision about consular notification. However, if as happens, foreign nationals do not wish to exercise their rights to consular assistance, Australias obligations under the VCCR and the PrivacyAct1988 prevent Australia from providing the personal particulars of any Indonesian national detained in Australia for people smuggling to Indonesian consular officials without that persons consent. This is reflected in the Consular Arrangement with Indonesia. Similar arrangements exist with other countries in accordance with the VCCR. Australian officials keep the Indonesian Embassy and consulates informed about its nationals and their status in Australia at all times. Where a person does not consent to consular assistance, this information is supplied in a generic manner, such as the date of arrival, the number of individuals concerned, and their current location. This information is updated regularly to reflect changes in status, and those updates are provided to the Indonesian Embassy. For example, when an Indonesian national is moved between immigration detention facilities, the Indonesian Embassy is advised as soon as practicable. Conclusion Age determination is an inexact science involving some margin of error irrespective of the method used. Recognising these limitations, the best approach is to adopt a combination of age determination procedures and to give defendants the benefit of the doubt. This ensures that people smuggling crew are only treated as adults where they are assessed on the available evidence to be an adult. The AFP and CDPP consider all available evidence and wrist X-rays are not exclusively relied upon. Ultimately age is a matter for the courts to determine on the balance of probabilities. The Commonwealth has implemented a number of measures designed to resolve the claims of people smuggling crew who claim to be minors before they reach court. These measures are also intended to ensure that where claims to be a minor do proceed to an age determination hearing, the court has the best available evidence on which to base a decision. The Commonwealth is committed to ensuring that the available evidence is presented to the courts when making age determinations in the criminal justice context. Accordingly, active consideration is being given to additional measures that could be implemented to further improve age determination processes. This includes continued work on adding further prescribed procedures in the Crimes Regulations, such as dental X-rays. AttachmentA: age determination procedures in selected countries CountryWrist X-rayDental observanceDental X-rayClavicle X-rayPhysical appearanceSexual maturityPsychological examinationBehavioural assessmentPerson s testimonyPaediatrician involvedSocial workerCultural mediatorAustriaBelgiumCanadaDenmarkEstoniaFinlandGermanyGreeceHungaryIrelandItalyMaltaThe NetherlandsNew ZealandNorwayPolandPortugalSloveniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandUnited KingdomUnited States  T Smith and L Brownless (UNICEF), Age assessment practices: a literature review & annotated bibliography, April2011, viewed 23January2011, .  A Veneman (UNICEF Childinfo), Progress for 鱨վ: A Report Card on Child Protection: Number 8, September2009, viewed 31January2009, .  See section 6.1 below.  Section3ZQB of the CrimesAct.  Section3ZQC of the CrimesAct.  See section6.2 below.  Regulation6C of the Crimes Regulations.  Section 73.1 of the Criminal Code and section 233A of the Migration Act (maximum penalty: imprisonment for 10years, a $110,000 fine, or both).  Section 73.2 of the Criminal Code and section 233B of the Migration Act (maximum penalty: imprisonment for 20 years, a $220,000 fine, or both. Offences under the Migration Act also carry a mandatory minimum penalty of eight years imprisonment applies, with a five year nonparole period).  Section 73.3 of the Criminal Code and section 233C of the Migration Act (maximum penalty: imprisonment for 20 years, a $220,000 fine, or both. Offences under the Migration Act also carry a mandatory minimum penalty of five years imprisonment, and a three year nonparole period for first time offenders). .  Section 236B(2) of the Migration Act.  Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions, Prosecution Policy of the Commonwealth: Guidelines for the making of decisions in the prosecution process, viewed 23January2012, .  See for example R v Rayan Abdul [2011] WADC 95, in which the court held that the onus of establishing age rested on the defendant.  See for example SBlack, JPayne-James and AAggrawal, Age Estimation in the Living: The Practitioner's Guide, 2010, Wiley-Blackwell, London, pp284-90; ASchmeling, CGrundmann, AFuhrmann, H-JKaatsch, BKnell and FRamsthaler, Criteria for age estimation in living individuals (2008) International Journal of Legal Medicine, pp 457-60; ASchmeling, H-JKaatsch, BMarr, WReisinger, TRiepert, SRitz-Timme, (Study Group on Forensic Age Diagnostics of the German Association of Forensic Medicine), Guidelines for Age Estimation in Living Individuals in Criminal Proceedings, 2000, viewed 23January2012, .  Media release by former Attorney-General and former Minister for Home Affairs and Justice, Improved process for age determination in people smuggling matters, 8July2011, viewed 23January2012, .  This diagram shows the generic processes the AFP undertakes when a people smuggling crew member claims to be a minor. It assumes that the crew member has been referred to the AFP by DIAC (after DIAC have undertaken an assessment and believes the crew member is an adult) and that they claim to be a minor prior to charge.  Subsection 198(2) of the MigrationAct.  Section 147 of the MigrationAct.  See section 3.2.3 and AttachmentA for further details.  WWGreulich and SIPyle, Radiographic atlas of skeletal development of the hand and wrist, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1959.  ASchmeling, WReisinger, DLoreck, KVendura, WMarkus and GGeserick, Effects of ethnicity on skeletal maturation: consequences for forensic age estimations (2000) International Journal of Legal Medicine , pp 253-58; R van Rijn, M Lequin Anors, Is the Greulich & Pyle Atlas still valid for Dutch Caucasian children today, (2001) Peditar Radiol 748-752.  DDunger, MAhmed and KOng, Early and late weight gain and the timing of puberty (2006) Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, pp 140-145.  AuSFO, Recommended Guidelines for Age Estimation, December2010, viewed 23January2012, .  ASchmeling et al, Practical Imaging Techniques for Age Evaluation, 2010, in SBlack et al, Age Estimation in the Living: The Practitioner's Guide, 2010, at 131-49.  See for example RLevenson and ASharma, (Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health), The Health of Refugee 鱨վ - Guidelines for Paediatricians, 1999, viewed 23January2012, .  ASchmeling et al, 2010, at 132.  See AttachmentA for further detail.  Section23G of the Crimes Act.  Section23K of the Crimes Act.  Section23N of the Crimes Act.  Section23P of the Crimes Act.  Section23S of the Crimes Act.  See section2.1 above.  The absence of a well-established process to determine the age of unaccompanied asylum seeking children is discussed at length in AKvittingen (Oxford University Refugee Studies Centre Working Paper Series No. 67), Negotiating childhood: Age assessment in the UK asylum system, November2010, viewed 30January2012, , and is noted consistently in case law, for example, R, R (on the application of) v London Borough of Croydon [2011] EWHC 1473 (Admin) (14 June 2011) at [14-17]. The following provisions give power to the courts to inquire about the persons age and make a determination on the available evidence. However, these provisions do not contain guidance about the nature of the inquiry: subsection164(1) of the Powers of Criminal Courts (Sentencing) Act 2000 (UK); subsection 305(2) of the Criminal Justice Act2003 (UK); subsection99(2) of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (UK); subsection150(4) of the Magistrates' CourtsAct1980; subsection 94(7) of the Immigration and Asylum Act 1999 (UK).  The UK High Court of Justice has provided guidance on appropriate age assessment methodologies in respect of persons seeking asylum, and persons charged with immigration offences, in the absence of a statutory framework for age assessment. See for example, B, R (on the application of) v London Borough of Merton [2003] EWHC 1689 (Admin) (14 July 2003); A, R v Croydon (Rev 1) [2009] UKSC 8 (26 November 2009); Croydon, 2011; KN, R (on the application of) v London Borough of Barnett [2011] EWHC 2019 (Admin) (29 July 2011). See UK Home Office, Planning better outcomes and support for unaccompanied asylum seeking children, February2007, viewed 27January2012, ; and UK Parliament Hansard, HC Deb 22 February 1982 vol 18 cc279-80W, in which the Secretary of State for the Home Department stated that the Chief Medical Officer had advised that although the risk from bone X-ray examinations remains negligible, they are unlikely to provide more accurate evidence of age than the assessment of other physical characteristics of an individual. [and] their continued use in the immigration context can no longer be justified, viewed 30January2012, .  UK Home Office, 2007; UK Home Office, Better outcomes: the way forward improving the care of unaccompanied asylum seeking children, January2008, viewed 27 January 2012, .  This is comparable with the practice in Australia of offering voluntary dental X-rays; while authorities are not able to compel a person to undergo a dental X-ray, it is not illegal to take it with the persons consent and submit it as evidence in court.  UKBA, Assessing Age, August2011, viewed 28 January 2012, .  The benefit of the doubt approach is designed to reflect the statutory duty contained in section55 of the Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Act 2009 (UK), which creates obligations on officials to safeguard and promote the welfare of children who are in the UK. See also UKBA, Assessing Age, 2011 at [2.2].  See UKBA, Assessing Age, 2011 at [5]. Local authorities provide accommodation and other support to minors, and conduct age assessments of persons involved in criminal proceedings, asylum seekers and other persons eligible for services under the 鱨վ Act (UK).  Merton, 2003.  Merton, 2003 at [38].  UKBA, Assessing Age, 2011 at [5.2].  Ibid at [6].  The facilitation offences under the Immigration Act (UK) are as follows: assisting unlawful immigration to an EU member state (section25), facilitating entry by asylum seekers to the UK for gain (section25A), and assisting entry to the UK in breach of a deportation or exclusion order (section25B). The offence under subsection25A(1) is comparable with Australias people smuggling offences. Under subsection25A(1), it is an offence if a person knowingly and for gain facilitates the arrival in or the entry into the UK of an individual, and knows or has reasonable cause to believe that the individual is an asylum seeker. The offence may be tried on indictment and carries a maximum penalty of 14 years imprisonment and/or an unlimited fine. There is no minimum penalty or time limit for prosecution. Police and immigration officers can arrest for this offence, and prosecutions are conducted by the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS). See CPS, Human Trafficking and Smuggling, viewed 30 January 2012, ; UKBA, Enforcement Instructions and Guidance, Chapter10, viewed 30 January 2012, .  The nexus between the age determination processes in the immigration and criminal justice contexts is discussed in HYPERLINK "http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/Admin/2009/928.html" \o "http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/Admin/2009/928.html"HBH, R (on the application of) v The Secretary of State for the Home Department & Anor [2009] EWHC 928 (Admin) (06 May 2009) at [41-46], wherein Keith J notes that age assessments made for immigration purposes generally informs the decision to prosecute: The emphasis is on establishing at the outset whether someone who arrives in the UK is an adult or not. If they are not, they are unlikely to be prosecuted. Similarly, an age assessment made by DIAC upon arrival informs whether a case is referred for investigation and prosecution.  HYPERLINK "http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/Admin/2009/928.html"HBH, 2009 at [45-46]. See CPS, Human Trafficking and Smuggling, viewed 30 January 2012, ; UKBA, Enforcement Instructions and Guidance, Chapter10, viewed 30 January 2012, .  For example, dental X-ray evidence was considered by the Court in Barnett, 2011; and A, R (on the application of) v Liverpool City Council [2007] EWHC 1477 (Admin) (26 June 2007).  See R(A) and (WK) v LB Crowdon and Kent CC [2009] EWHC 939 (Admin); Croydon, 2011. R (CJ) v Cardiff CC [2011] EWHC 23 (Admin) at [113].  See for example, Barnett, 2011; Croydon, 2011; R(Y) v LB Hillingdon [2011] EWHC 1477.  See R (CJ) v Cardiff CC [2011] EWCA Civ 1590, handed down on 20 December 2011, wherein the Court of Appeal held that neither party bore the onus of proving the persons age. However, this case was strictly limited to decisions under the 鱨վAct (UK), and the Court emphasised that whether a burden of proof should be applied at all and, if so, where it should rest, will depend upon the terms of the statute conferring the power to act.  The relevant case-law on age determination in the criminal context refers to civil cases such as Merton, 2003, and the court in HBH, 2009 noted that the Merton case was not context specific and may apply in the criminal context. However, the CPS indicates that where the issue of age is unclear, defendants should be given the benefit of the doubt in accordance with the CRC  The US uses the term alien. However, for the purpose of this submission, the term unlawful non-citizen is used.  Homeland Security Act of 2002 (US) (Public Law 107-296) 25November2002.  Jenny Lisette Flores, et al. v. Janet Reno, Attorney General of the United States, et al, Stipulation of Settlement Agreement, Case No. CV 85-4544-RJK(Px) (1997), viewed 30 January 2012, .  William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008 (US) (Public Law 110-457) (23 December 2008).  Department of Health and Human Services Program Instructions dated 15 September 2010, viewed 30 January 2012, .  House Appropriations Committee Report, Inappropriate Treatment of Unaccompanied Alien 鱨վ, 2008, viewed 30January2012, .  House Appropriations Committee Report, Inappropriate Treatment of 鱨վ in ICE Custody, 2009, viewed 30January2012, .  Office of Inspector General (Department of Homeland Security), Age Determination Practices for Unaccompanied Alien 鱨վ in ICE Custody, November2009, viewed 30 January 2012, .  Ibid.  See Kvittingen, 2010 and UK Home Office, 2007 for further discussion on the ramifications for local authorities under the current system.  Kvittingen, 2010 at [19], cites the example of one social worker who regards fidgeting as evidence that a person is lying about his or her age, and another social worker who considers it to be an example of youthful nervousness.  In HBH, 2009 at [41], JusticeKeith noted, the formulation of policy is a gradual process. It evolves over a period of years and changes from time to time. A change in policy does not necessarily mean that the previous policy was recognised to have been unlawful. Merton, 2003, at [29].  Section 233C of the Migration Act.  Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292.  Article 3(1) of the CRC.  Committee on the Rights of the Child (UN High Commissioner for Human Rights), General Comment No. 6: Treatment of Unaccompanied and Separated 鱨վ Outside Their Country of Origin, 1 September 2005, viewed 30 January 2012, , 20.  See UN Treaties Collection for details of reservations, .  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;hYh6B*CJaJphh ;hYh6CJaJhYhCJaJ!jh ;hYh0JCJUaJh0PCJaJ!jh ;hYh0JHCJUaJh(CJaJhLyCJaJh ;hLyCJaJh ;hYhCJaJhP>hYhCJaJ'mn…ޅ߅,.CE†¯㖋wnbbWOhviCJaJhKcBh(CJaJh(h(6CJaJh(6CJaJhehYh6CJaJh(CJaJhehYhCJaJ!jhehYh0JCJUaJh0PCJaJ%h Qh0PB*CJaJmH phsH (hh0P6B*CJaJmH phsH hh0P6CJaJh(hYhCJaJ!jh(hYh0JCJUaJ-9:;hij̀ӀՀր׀fhЁƻƻn_RhO%CJaJmHnHuhO%CJ]aJmHnHu%hvihYh6CJ]aJmHnHuhvihYhCJaJmHnHu!jhvihvi0JCJUaJhvihvi6CJaJUhvihviCJaJhvihYhCJaJ!jhvihYh0JCJUaJhYhh(CJaJh=MhYhCJaJ!jh=MhYh0JCJUaJGeneral Comment No. 6: Treatment of Unaccompanied and Separated 鱨վ Outside Their Country of Origin, 1 September 2005, viewed 30 January 2012, , 31(i).  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